Constitutional reforms of 1939 Ad

In september 1939,the Maharaja promulgated the jammu and kashmir constitution Act.This Act made some amendments in the constitution Act of 1934 AD.the Reform Act of 1939 A.D. increased the number of elected members of the Praja sabha from 33 to 40.the new constitrution did not give any important powers to the praja sabha and it remained only a consultative body as before.the praja sabha was empowered to make laws for the state subjectspass all legislaions pertaining to the taxes as distinguihed from fees and penalties and to vote on the demands made by the government for budget approriations, with the exception of  some non-votable item.The Reforms of 1939 fell short of the expections of both the National Conference  and the Muslim conference and these parties continued to press the Government for the establishment or a truly responsible government in the state.

The formation of all jammu and kashmir Muslim conference in kashmir

Undoubtedly all jammu and kashmir Muslim conference awakened the people of kashmir from their deep slumber and dormance.As P.N. Bamzai had remarked with the Muslim masses groaning under several disabilities and passing through, a period of severe econamic depression,with the thousands of Hindu young men educated but unemployed the administration under an inefficient and unsympathetic bureaucracy and with the direct encouragement by the British to the agitators,the stage was set for a rising early in 1931 A.D. The Muslim press in lahore and other cities of the punjab let loose a bitter campaign of hatred and opposition against Maharaja Hari's Singh rule in jammu and kashmir.Tales of the state were published by the press which instigated the Muslim to rise against the Maharaja,who it was alleged to be heavily under the influence of his Hindu officers and his favourites.The Anglo-indian press also wrote in support of the agitators and denunciated the Maharaja and his government .Meanwhile,several Muslim young men,fresh from the universities in india,particularly Aligarh,where they had met Muslim leader and propagators of pan-Islamisim,organized themselves into a group,holding frequent meetings at the Muslim Reading Room in srinagar.
Frustrated at their failure to enter state service direct on responsible and remunerative posts,they concluded that unless they had the backing of the masses,they had no future in the land of their birth.By and by,they organized large meetings and carried on a whispering but ineffective campaign against what they termed a Hindu state.their political activities were thus based on purely communal lines,which  later on assumed a painful aspect.they had the tacit support of the British Indian Government as well as the British minister.
The Maharaja, ignorant of the feelings and aspirations of the  people,did not take any initiative in winning back their good will and confidence,All these factors lead to the formation of Muslim conference .The most zealous and  conspicuous among the young agitators was Sheikh Muhammad A dbullah.After obtaining a Masters degree from Aligarh university,he had returned to kashmir.Although he had received a advanced education.he could secure only the post of a teacher in a government school.Being frustrated the sheikh raised the voice of protest against the Maharaja's policy of denying high jobs in the state service to the Muslim and resigned his job in protest.

About Kushan occupation of kashmir

 As we know ,Jaluka was succeeded by Damodra 11. The later built a town on the Damadra-suda (modern Damdra udar) round an arid alluvial  plateau to the south of srinagar.He also wished to arrange for its irrigation through a canal  which .however could not be onstructed owing to the opposition of some Brahmans.
After he passed away ,kashmir is said to have come under the kushan occupation.The north-west india was,no doubt ,subjected toi several foreign invations following the fall of the  Mauryan Empire and Kashmir could not possibly keep herself immune from these convulsion.
There ia a suggestion that for a breif period a part of it came even under the  indo-greek  and the sakas.Manendar also called Millinda (165-145 B.C ) haf definitely incorporated into his kingdom Gandhra and some parts of the Punjab and made Sialkot as a capital.
The Sakas who followed the Greek controlled a much larger part of northh-west india,including Gandhara,the swat vally and possible a part of kashmir .the sakas were overthrown  in india by kushanas in the begining of the first century A.D. Under the later,small and fragmented atates were once again united .Their empire included not only the regions of northern and north-western indian but also of central Asia and Afganistan.
According to kalhana among the kushan rulers whose sway extended to  kashmir included Juska and Kanishka.Each  one of them founded here a town after his name ,these were called Huskapura (Uskar),Juskapura(Zukur) and kanishka pura (kanispura) respectively.
Kaniska is identified with the well-know kushan ruler of india of the same name.According to a Buddhist tradition he convened the fourth Buddhist council at a place called Kundalvana in kashmir,although some scholars opine that it was held at Jallundar in the Punjab.

Tarapida;s reign

Tarapida ascended the throne in 79-20.His inglorious rule of four years was full of cruel and bloody deeds.the oppressed people fled to forests and hills to escape the malicious deeds of the king and his minions.

Founder of Utpala dynasty

After the fall of karkota dynasty,kashmir came under the rule of the Utpala dynasty.Avantivarman was the founder of the dynasty who ruled kashmir 855 to 883 A.D. He was the most powerful and energetic king of this dynasty.

Lalitadiya of past kashmir

Construction of irrigation works and improvement of agriculture
Before the time  of Lalitaditya,the vally of kashmir had been subject to recurring menace of annual floods due to the silting up of the bed of river jehlum.He was the first king of kashmir to realize that by clearing the bed of the river of rocks and silt,the flow of water would be accelerated and more water would be available for irrigation.In this respect he was the forerunner of Suyya,the great engineer  of Avantivarman.Lalitaditya got the passage cleared and,thus areas of swamps became available for cultivationj of crops.Similarly,he constructed them fit for agriculture.To augment water resoures.he also built numerous irrigation canals.Kalhana records that lalitadiya made distributary arrangements at Chakradhra and other karewas of lifting water of the vitasta and its distributaries to many villages by the construction od a series of water wheels,thus making more water available for irrigation purposes.the commulative effect of building these irrigation works was the large tracts of land which were previously under-used became productive.the production of crops increased which added to the prosperity of the people.

About kashmir under the Mauryas

Historians are of the that the real history of kashmir begins with the reign  of Ashoka.He conquered kashmir in about 250 B.C.and sent  missionaries to introduce Buddhism in this land.Kalhana narrates in his Rajtarangini that,"Hisduism  went side by side with Buddhism.Father and son and kings and  ministers sometimes had different faiths."in kashmir,Ashoka set got viharas and stupas at Vitstatra and Suskaletra.He also got repaired an old siva temple of vijayesvra,and built two new temples called Ashokesvara.He founded a town named srinagar ,three miles away from the modern city of srinagar.

                 After the death of Ashoka kashmir again became independedt and was ruled by his son Jaluka.According to kalhana he was a great soldier who freed kashmir of the Mlechhas and conquered the country upto kannuj, He is also said to have reformed administrative system in kashmir.He increased the member of heads of departments from 7 to 18 which included the judge,the revenue superintendent, and the treasurer,the commander of army,the envoy ,the puruhita and te astrologer.it is said that he brought from kannuja,"people of all four castes in his own land and particularly righteous men acquainted with the legal procedure."

               After the death of Ashoka , Buddhism had begun decline in india and so also in kashjmir.Hinduism with its ceremonies and rituals of sacrifices was restored.Jaluka's call to,"people of all four castes",particularly to those who were well versed  in legal procedur i.e,Brahmans indicates  the restoration  of Hindu practices.But the form of Hinduism  which flourished in kashmir under Jaluka was Saivism.He built two Siva temples of Jyestharudra and Bhutesa,at srinagari and Nandikshera respectively.He is said to have demolidshed Buddhist Vihara but later adopted a conciliatory attitude towards Buddhism.

            Jaluka was succeeded by Damodara 11. He built a town on the Damodara suda(Modern Damodar  Udar) to the south-west of srinagar.He also planned to construct a canal for irrigating the alluvial plate to south of the srinagar.But he  could not built this canal due to the opposition of the Brahmanas.

Sangramarja of kashmir

Sangramaraja was the first ruler of the lohara dynasty.He was a son of Didda's.He was a weak king and ruled from 1003-1028A.D.During the earlier part of his reign,the prime Minister Tunga remained predominant Sangramaraja died in 1028 A.D.

Shahmir's administration

Shah Mir ascended the throne of kashmir under the name of Sultan shamas-ud-din in 1339.Shah mir though himself a Muslim,made no distinction between his Hindu and Muslim subjects.During his short reign of three years,he endeared himself to both the communities.He made no changes in the system of administration except that he replaced the current Hindu era with a new one called the kashmir sana to commemorate the conversion of Rinchana to Islam in A.D.1320.

Advent of Dulacha of kashmir

Dulacha was a Mongol,who came from Turkistan.He invaded kashmir in 1320 throught the western gate of Baramulla.His uninterrupted advance struck terror in the country.Dulacha who had the bvally "has come as a lion into the cave of the deer" and "brought with him sixty thoursand mounted force." harassed the country "like a fire brand" and "the people of kashmir." says jonaraja."became like insects in the fire."

Rajtarangini book on kashmir

Rajtarangini (the river of kings) ia a great historical work of kalhana on ancient kashmir.this historical work was compiled by kalhana pandit in 1148-49 A.D.Rajtarangini was not written under the patronage of any king.it is written in sanaskrit verse and  can be regarded as a true historical text.Rajatrangini records the history of various dynasties which ruled kashmir from the remote past down to the time of kalhana.

Rinchana or Sultan Sadr-udDin of bkashmir

Rinchana was not only  an able and energetic ruler but also a great builder.He founded the town of Rinchanpura, now a part of srinagar city.He build the first  Mosque called Bud Masheed in kashmir.He also built a hospice for Bulbul shah,his spiritual guide and setablished a free kitchen (Langar khana) at Ali kadal in srinagar and endowed it with revenue collections from several villages.the  public charity kitchen came  to be known as Bulbul langar.

First settlers of kashmir

According to the Nilmatpurana and Rajatarangini the earliest settlers of kashmir were the Pisachas,Yakshas,and Nagas.With the passage of time,Aryans entered kashmir,followed by several races.

Jammu Region

Jammu region,in south of kashmir vally,is the home od Dogras.They are sturdy and hard working people.they are divided into numerous castes and  sub-castes- both Hindus andMuslims.They belong to the Aryan race and speak the Dogri language mixture of Sanaskrit,Punjabi and Persian words.

Loharas ruled Kashmir

The Lohara dynasty was founded  in 1003 A.D. by Sangramaraja who received the crown of kashmir from  his aunt Queen Didda.This dynasty ruled kashmir from 1003 to 1171 A.D. the history of his period is a record of Shameless lust,fiendish cruelty and pitiless misrule on the part of kings and Queens.

Naga Worship in kashmir

Most of the rites prescribed in the Nilamatpurana are concerned with the nature of worship of popular deities.But there are some festivals which are particularly connected with the worship of Nagas.Thus Nila,the lord of the Ngas, was worship on the festival of the first fall of snow.in the fourth and third centuries B.C.Naga worship may have been the prinicpal religion in kashmir .Naga worship was actually snake worship. thus snakes were very  much sacred to those people.

Character of Harsha in kashmir

Harsha was the fifth ruler of lohara dynasty.Harsha ascended the throne of kashmir after dethroning his brother Utkarsa in 1089A.D.Harsha was a man of qualities,a learned man,knew many languages and compossed sweet songs.He reformed the administration with unabated enthusiasm.However ,soon Harsha's policy and attitude under went a change which tured Harsha from a benevolent ruler to an oppressive,cruel,ruthless and mean ruler.

Damaras

With the accession of Simhadeva began the rule of the Damaras in kashmir in 1286A.D.During the Lohara rule,the Damaras became practically the masters of the country.They came to hold rich estates,keep armed retainers and have  strong holds in many important and strategic places in the valley.But they made no contribution worth the name in any field of activity.

Gufta rule in kashmir

Gupta rule started with the accession of Parvagupta to the throne of kashmir in 949 A.D.But within a year and a halfd of accession,he died of dropsy leaving  the throne to hos son and successor Kshemagupta 950-958 A.D. Kshemagupta was licentious and profligate in his habits.He married with Didda and became her victim.He was popularly called as Diddaksema.This marriage alliance brought kashmir under the rule of the Lohara dynasty.

How kashmir has taken its name

According to the tradition,kashmir takes its name from a sage kashyap who lived on the bank of a mountain lake called Satisar.He drained this lake and the reclaimed land was called Kashap-pur or kashap-mar and later kashmir. kashmir the paradise on earth.